Question 4: How might you stimulate “brain-compatible” learning through questioning and graphic aids?

Questioning

There are a variety of questioning techniques to foster student understanding and learning. Most are derivatives of the Socratic Method, which Sousa (2006) defines as, “[drawing] information from students through a series of carefully designed questions that eventually help students achieve the lesson objective. I must admit that this is not one of my strong points as a teacher, although I see the value. I utilize questioning techniques often, but not in such structured avenues as uncovered in this research. Changingminds.org  devotes several pages to an assorted array of questioning techniques. Some of these strategies have been employed in my classroom others have not, I look forward to experimenting.

• Chunking down: pursues more detail about information already known. (How did you do that? Why did that happen? Tell me more about...etc.)
• Chunking up: can be used when students have a firm handle on the details. (What does this mean? Let’s look at the bigger picture…What are we trying to achieve here? Etc.)
• Leading questions: guide student response in a particular direction.
• Non-leading questions: elicit unbiased responses allowing student honesty.
• Non-emotional questions: do not evoke emotional connections for the student. Instead of: Do bullies make you angry? Have you seen others being bullied?
• Columbo Technique: begins by engaging in relaxed conversation, asking benign questions that appear to have no real meaning and culminates with the “real question(s)”.  I would love to evolve this method, especially in Health classes, where many students, so often, do not acknowledge the importance of what they are learning, i.e., alcohol abuse can cause long term physical, mental and emotional damage. I can see where this type of questioning would allow me to equate personal behaviors with outcomes most young people do not identify as meaningful to them.
• Group questioning:  are insights and applications to avoid possible issues. A variety of thoughts are outlined below.

1.     Who are you asking? When addressing a class make sure to direct your questions to the students, not the “air” around them. After reading this section I realized why some of my class questions may go unanswered. In addressing the whole class I have developed the habit of looking over the group versus at them.

2.     Ask an individual by using their name, pointing to them or their location and give appropriate time for a response.

3.     Ask a selection first by qualifying, followed by letting students know how to answer. For example: Who here has seen protozoa using a microscope before? Please raise your hands.

4.     Even though asking everyone a question, give a prompt. Who can interpret this graph?

5.     Keep them with you by maintaining an interesting demeanor and keeping students engaged in the lesson. Becoming more creative in this area has brought more success to my Biology students. My new format delivers information, has students illustrate their understanding followed by re-explaining the concept to their neighbor. Then every 10 to 15 minutes students move to lab benches and take a short quiz. Answers are gone over to allow for immediate feedback.

6.     Continuously scan students to evaluate their interest, confusion, agitation, etc.

7.     Pointing yourself towards the group at different intervals insures students know you are paying attention to what and how they are doing.

8.     Rehearsing with other students allows them to express their understanding of concepts.

9.     Repeating answers to questions is valuable, since some students may have missed the information.

10.   Engage individuals in short conversations, but be sure to involve other students, i.e., would anyone else like to state their opinion or give us some thoughts?

11.    It is important to steer students in the direction you would like them to go.

12.   Be cognizant of reward and punishment statements. If one is critical of a student’s response others may not be willing to participate.

13.   How much attention is given to what is said can promote further inquiry into that topic.

14.   To conclude a discussion summarize the major points and allow students to express any final thoughts. And, always thank students for their participation.

Carter McNamara (2009) offers features for effective questioning. Even though this web site is aimed at companies and organizations I can envision the value of these “traits of strategic questions.”  (1) Create Motion: How could something happen? (2) Create an Option: What would you do? (3) Dig Deeper: What changes need to occur? (4) Avoid “why”. (5) Avoid “yes” and “no” questions. (6) Empower: How would you like to do this? 

A list of powerful questions is also offered for consideration: How important is this? What can I do for you? What’s your role in this issue? What do you hope for? What’s preventing you from…? What have you tried so far? What can you do for yourself? What have you learned? Many of these questions I have certainly used, however, not with the full understanding of their impact and ability to pursue knowledge in the classroom. “Intuitive” teaching does not equal mindful, strategic teaching.

Filling The Toolbox, is a wonderful compilation of methods and tactics developed by Jamie McKenzie, Ed. D and Hilarie Bryce, Ed.D, at http://www.fno.org/toolbox.html (2009).  Questioning ideas, strategies and methods are related to a variety of classroom components. A few are discussed below:

• Beginning A New Unit: Before starting new material have students generate their own questions that could be asked around the topic. All questions are accepted since the idea is to nurture more ideas. In fact, students should be encouraged to “think outside of the box.” This tactic is certainly worth pursuing. I have found it to be very effective, especially in Health classes. For example, students recently had to come up with questions related to contraceptive methods. Interestingly, they chose the very questions that related to all the subtopics within the unit.
• Class Taxonomy of Questions: This form of questioning integrates higher order thinking skills for students, since they need to categorize the types of questions they have developed. McKenzie and Bryce evolve this idea into a formulated lesson. In order for students to become adept at this ability they need to practice. I believe this is truly an extraordinary way for students to develop their thinking skills.
• Questioning Homework:  In response to reading matter: develop three comparison questions; consider a question left unanswered; determine the author’s main question; come up with a question that has no answer, several answers or an infinite number of responses; and, create a question that can evolve into more and more questions. Suggestions for skill oriented classes, i.e., math and science are also exhibited. Students can produce questions that “bothered, stimulated or intrigued them as they did their work.”
• The Interview: Create scenarios that model television or talk show interviews. Have students play the various roles implicated by a topic. I find that most students enjoy engaging in this type of activity. Some, actually, excel in these rolls. Recently, in Health classes, students needed to develop public service announcements to educate the public about a particular STD. I always give students different options to express their knowledge and understanding. One group wanted to develop a video. After redesigning the rubric and empowering them to pursue their creativity, a superior product was unfolded, in my opinion. Three young women, all of whom had not been producing very good work, have truly shined in this undertaking.

Graphic Aids

                        Pierce Howard (1999) explores research, from 1956, demonstrating the brain’s inability to gather and decode too much information at one time. Effectively learning new material requires breaking it down into brain manageable bits. “Chunking” is the term presently used for this process. Combining chunking with imagery creates more of a valuable strategy to facilitate the learning process, according to Sousa. The brain inherently forms patterns to assimilate and decipher incoming information, Dispenza (2007) explains.  And…Sheryl Feinstein (2004) reminds us that the brain “remembers images more easily than words”.  Hence, the use of graphic aids and organizers are great ways to compress a lot of information into a small package. Several web sites and authors devote insights into these methods.

Concept mapping, another term related to graphic aids, helps students to codifying ideas and their relationships. Students with learning disabilities tend to ascertain more knowledge through the use of these tools. It is my desire to employ as many learning techniques as possible in the classroom, since all brains are unique and function differently. I had not realized the variety of mapping methods that could be employed, virtually to all topics and their content components.  Both my Biology and Health classes need to compare and contrast terms, ideas, and components of subject material. I have given students some of the tools listed below to express their understanding. Personal responsibility for one’s learning style is important to cultivate, in my opinion. Therefore, they get to choose from the various methods they have been shown which will help them the most. The following list comes directly from How The Brain Learns by David Sousa (2006).

·      To classify similarities and differences in relationships use Spider maps.

·      For defining subsets and their aggregates use Hierarchy maps.

·      Chain maps are good for progressive and causal relationships.

·      Discerning main ideas and supporting incidents from stories or reading material can be illustrated through Story maps.

·      Analogy maps can be used for comparing and contrasting ideas, terms or elements.

·      Students can appraise what they need to learn along with what they know using K-W-L (K/what is known, W/what one wants to know and L/what was learned)  mapping.

·      Venn Diagrams are, of course, useful for mapping similarities and differences between two concepts.

·      Deciphering the major components of a novel work well with Plot Diagrams.

·      Brace maps illustrate subsets of bigger ideas.

Learningpt.org (2009) is a valuable site for integrating some of Sousa’s concept maps. Donna Ogle illustrates how she expands on the K-W-L technique by adding H (how can we learn more). Students are expected to think about other avenues of exploring knowledge related to what they have learned, i.e., field trips, museums, research, etc. I believe this is a great way to connect students to subject matter. Ogle also states that students can use the categories they create to generate other graphic organizers.

            Learningpt.org also offers what is termed an Anticipation/Reaction Guide. This mapping form allows students to evaluate if they agree or disagree with certain knowledge to be explored.  Assessment takes place before and after the lesson. This is a valuable method of pre and post testing student knowledge.

            Yet, another page illustrates several types of graphic organizers not discussed by Sousa. Map templates are provided which make this site user friendly. Also included are guiding questions that can be used for each of the following:

• Series of Events Chain: describes stages, steps, sequences, actions, goals or outcomes related to particular topics.
• Continuum Scale: are time lines to express eras, rating scales or varied meanings associated with a concept.
• Compare/Contrast Matrix: show the similarities and differences between two ideas, people, places, etc.
• Problem/Solution Outline: depicts a problem, proposed solutions and outcomes.
• Network Tree: the same as Sousa’s Hierarchy mapping, interrelationships among humans/groups and their associated actions.
• Fishbone Map: can display the cause(s) of how particular events occur.
• Cycle Mapping: exhibits how various incidents interact with each other repeatedly.

A unique method to enhance student generated questioning and knowledge base of reading material through, what is called, scaffolding is can be found at Readwritethink.org.  A comprehensive lesson plan, instruction and activities provided by Klingner, J.K. & Vaughn, S. (1999) are available.  I, especially, like the terms, usage and application for reading comprehension. Students are put into groups. After glossing over the assigned reading they predict what will be learned. While reading, groups engage in an activity called “click and clunk”. Using a graphic organizer students place terms and information they know or understand in one section, “click” and in the other, “clunk” they list items that require more knowledge. Students, then, identify the main idea and confer what they have learned.  A discussion follows among peers to validate, correct or change each others comprehension. I have never used the process of “click and clunk”. I can see tremendous value in its application. Students will be more cognizant of what they do not understand and teachers will know which concepts require further instruction.

            One more concept should be addressed to further support success in the above listed methodologies, ‘wait-time’. Robert Stahl’s article, Using “Think-Time” and “Wait-Time Skillfully in The Classroom (2009) summarizes Mary Budd Roew’s research in 1972 and expands on her findings. Rowe discovered, by allowing students at least three seconds to respond to questions, increased correct responses, reduced ‘I don’t know’ answers, encouraged volunteers and improved academic achievement test scores. Stahl advocates what he terms, “Think-Time”, which also favors the three second rule incorporated with periods of silence that allow both teacher and students “to process tasks, feelings, oral responses and actions.”  Stahl outlines several constructs related to Think-Time, including areas where less than or more than three seconds is more appropriate given the nature of a lesson.

            David Sousa gives an additional scheme related to wait-time, which he terms Think-Pair-Share. Students are given a question to consider. After the requisite wait-time they are paired and discuss each other’s insights. Some students share their answers with the whole class. Interestingly, I employ Sousa’s method in my Biology class, although I never knew I was applying a specific method of teaching.  It has become an effective tool for helping students understand, what many of them consider, difficult concepts. I also agree that the use of wait-time is an important tool when asking students questions. I have cultivated patience over the years of my teaching career. Nonetheless, with the depth of knowledge gained from this research I realize the vast importance of using wait-time as an effective tool. The brain needs processing time to connect the known with new concepts and ideas. There are students that require more than three seconds to respond to questions. I find that teenagers are quite slow first thing in the morning. This is not necessarily due to lack of intellectual ability. Feinstein (2004) points out teenagers need a great deal of sleep, much more than they are getting. Their sleep cycles also change during this period of development. I see an absolute difference between first and second classes of the day. As research indicates, school should start later for the teenage brain.